Article Precis Christianity and Judaism

Question: Portray about the Article Precis for Christianity and Judaism. Answer: Presentation The article composed by Daniel Boyarin Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism (1998) centers around the historical backdrop of Christian martyrology. The creator is principally an antiquarian of the religion; he holds the double citizenship of Israeli and United States. He is a teacher of early Christian investigations and is for the most part intrigued exploring the field of religious philosophy. He expresses that a portion of the researchers accept that Christian martyrology is the concealment and prolongation of the Jewish martyrology. Along these lines, the motivation behind the creator is to give the solid premise to the cooperation of Christianity and Judaism in the second, third and fourth hundreds of years. Martyrology is considered as the multisource talk, which can educate much about the advancement regarding Christianity and Judaism in late Antiquity. Rundown of Methodology and Evidences The general methodology of the writer in the article is to discover the association among Christianity and Judaism, by finding the talk of affliction and its parentage. The confirmations utilized in the article depend on numerous religious and antiquated writings and explicitly clarify the importance of each new word presented in the investigation. The researchers have the customary view towards Judaism and Christianity. They accept that Judaism existed before Christianity. The division of Christianity from Judaism happened after the demolition of the Second Temple[1]. The researcher accepted that during the Second Temple time frame, numerous orders of Judaism were in presence. These orders were the Proto-conventional Christians and Rabbinic Judaism[2]. Nonetheless, a portion of the researchers like Robert Goldenberg, has asserted that till the finish of First century, there were isolated religions like Christianity and Judaism[3]. Daniel Boyarin has utilized such huge confirmations to propose the improvement of the early Jewish and early Christian thoughts regarding affliction and their conceivable collaboration (p. 580). The confirmations utilized by the creator are old, yet exceptionally noteworthy to be utilized in this investigation. The exhaustive arrangements of assets are utilized to propose the postulation proclamation. The creator states with explicit reference that suffering was the training that altogether began in Judaism and Christian affliction has nothing to do with Jewish origin[4]. This training was started in the Roman social condition. Along these lines, the references utilized by the creator are advocated by the wide exhibit of data they give. The writer of this article has chosen the references precisely, to legitimize the fundamental point of article. Synopsis of the Article The central matter of the examination is to discover the connection among Christian and Jewish Martyrdom. The writer of the article has given the synopsis and examination of different philosophical bits of writing. For setting up the association among Judaism and Christianity, creator has basically centered around breaking down the account of Rabbi Eliezer. The creator gives the changed comprehension about the mind boggling collaboration among Christianity and Judaism in the late relic. The creator found that these two religions were intricately and strongly entwined with one another during late vestige. As per the exploration and confirmations gathered by the creator, he found that in the initial three centuries, all the structures and practices of Christianity and Judaism were considered as the piece of one religion. Both the religions could likewise be considered as the twins. These two religions were contending with one another for their predominance and personality. Be that as i t may, both the religions shared same profound bonding[5]. The creator expresses that with increasingly more exploration and confirmations it is difficult to isolate Judaism from Christianity and Christanity from Judaism. It is on the grounds that the outskirts between them are exceptionally hazy and thoughts and practices can cross fringes in both the headings. End The article broke down is Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism composed by Daniel Boyarin, as the piece of his book Dying for God: Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism, which was discharged in the year 1999. The creator has given a basic investigation of both the religions, with the help of huge confirmations from the history and philosophy. The article is old, however contains some significant data in regards to the beginning of religions and their history. Book index Eliav, Yaron Z., and Daniel Boyarin. Kicking the bucket for God: Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism. (2001): 385-389. Frend, William WHC.Martyrdom and oppression in the early church: An investigation of contention from the Maccabees to Donatus. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2014. Frend, William HC. The Persecutions: a few connections among Judaism and the early Church.The Journal of Ecclesiastical History9, no. 02 (1958): 141-158. Goldenberg, Robert. Kicking the bucket for God: Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism (review).Jewish Quarterly Review92, no. 3 (2002): 586-588.

Micro-Brewery Business

The Bok Ale House and Brewery, an Atlantic Beach based bar and microbrewery (Brewpub) will work as a solitary unit, medium-size alehouse, serving fine, hand created, great, lager, and ale lagers. The microbrewery will be situated at 1001 Atlantic Boulevard in Atlantic Beach, North Carolina. Today there are more than 700 microbreweries working in the United States. The Bok Ale House and Brewery will be Atlantic Beaches† first present day microbrewery, committed to delivering delightful beer and ale lagers. A convention revived! The organization's objective is that of a multi-faceted achievement. Our first duty is to the monetary prosperity of the bottling works. We will meet this objective while attempting to consider; 1) the impact of our items on the prosperity of our clients (and our staff), 2) the effect that our strategic policies and decisions will have on the earth, and 3) the high caliber of disposition, reasonableness, comprehension, and liberality between the executives, staff, clients, and sellers. Attention to every one of these elements and the capable activities that outcome will give our endeavors a feeling of direction and significance past our essential budgetary objectives. The Bok Ale House and Brewery was consolidated in July of 1999. The originators are Minnie Mouse and Daisy. Minnie is the President and Daisy is the Vice President. There are 5,000 portions of normal stock gave. Minnie and Daisy each own 1,000 offers and the rest of held by the organization for future circulation. What's more they have advanced the organization $100,000 of their own cash for exploration and start-up costs. This organization will be shaped as a Partnership in lieu of a Proprietorship with Minnie and Daisy sharing equivalent obligations. A reasonable site for the principal eatery was discovered a month ago and rent dealings are in the last stages. The area will be on Atlantic Boulevard, simply outside Catwalk Pavilion and near a thick populace of the objective market. At the point when the rent is marked, there will be three months of free lease for development and in that time the equalization of the beginning up reserves must be raised. With that stage finished, The Bok Ale House and Brewery would then be able to open and the activities period of the undertaking can start. On the off chance that the business is meeting its projections by year two, we will begin exploring for a subsequent area and create plans for the following unit. Our five-year objective is to surpass the greatest barrelage for a microbrewery (15,000 barrels every year ) and turn into a mass maker of Bok Ale and Boã °a Bok Lager worldwide with a yearly benefit of somewhere in the range of $500,000 and $1,000,000. In spite of the fact that the microbrewery business is extremely serious, the way of life changes made by current living keep on filling its consistent development. Patterns are significant and Bok Ale House and Brewery is all around situated for the current enthusiasm for stylish, easygoing, sea shore climate. As of March 15, 1999, there were 1,528 microbreweries, brewpubs, and provincial claim to fame bottling works in North America.2 There are in excess of 2000 beer brands created in the United States, multiple times the quantity of brands delivered 10 years back. U.S. also, worldwide brewers keep on creating a gigantic exhibit of lager styles with strong specialty markets proceeding to produce for industry individuals from each size. The mix procedure was viewed as a woman†s work until the finish of the primary thousand years. Around then, religious community bottling works started rehearsing the fermenting procedure. The priests chose they needed an incredible tasting, nutritious beverage to serve their suppers. During fasting, brew was utilized to fulfill the ravenous priests on the grounds that the utilization of fluids didn't defy the guidelines of fasting. The priests were accounted for to drink huge amounts of lager every day. Their affection for the drink transformed it into a business. The microbrewery business is getting probably the biggest business in the nation. In June 1997, an article in the North Carolina Times Union noticed that there were 154 microbreweries without a brewpub joined and 278 more with a brewpub. In 1993 new microbreweries opened at the pace of almost two every week in the State of North Carolina, especially in the sea shores territories . It represents over $240 billion yearly in deals and the free microbrewery represents 15% of that all out. The normal American burns through 15% of his/her pay on social amusement outside the home. This number has been expanding for as long as quite a long while. As indicated by the 1991-1992 North America Brewers Resource Directory, the normal per-capita utilization of beers was 23.4 gallons every year in 1989 in the United States. Future Trends and Strategic Opportunities The predicated development pattern is sure both in short and long haul projections. In 1988, The National Brewery Association discharged the Microbrewery Industry 2000 report that anticipated how the business may glance in the year 2000. A few features from the board's discoveries:  · â€Å"Consumers will spend a more noteworthy extent of their diversion dollar away from home.  · Independent administrators and business visionaries will be the principle wellspring of new eatery ideas.  · Environmental concerns will get expanded attention.† Art brewers are envisioning the soundness of a more grounded and savvier make fermenting industry that is as of now coming to fruition in 1999 and will keep on reinforcing during 2000 and 2001. â€Å"The nature of the normal brewpub and the normal microbrew on the rack is consistently improving,† says David Edgar, Director of the Institute for Brewing Studies. The Bok Ale House and Brewery will offer grown-up refreshments with an unmistakable picture. The Bok Ale House and Brewery menu is little estimated, complimentary contribution of light tidbits. We will probably make the picture of an easygoing, sea shore environment while serving top notch, hand made brews, lagers, and ales. Food creation and get together will happen in the brewhouse of the microbrewery. Malt grain, jumps, yeast, and water will be utilized to make the vast majority of the beers and ales without any preparation. The brewmaster will practice severe norms of sanitation, quality creation, and introduction or bundling over the bottling works and administration staff. The more established method of lager verifying our items, for example, preparing in littler bunches, doing without filtration and purification to deliver lagers that hold a greater amount of the flavor and character granted by yeast during maturation. The business will deliver under 15,000 barrels for every year so as to keep up its status as a microbrewery2. There will be two territories a client can buy drinks. They may sit in the sitting territory and get full help from a waitperson or can sit at the bar and request legitimately from the barkeep. Whichever way will profit the supporter with free hors d'oeuvres and top notch refreshments. There is a market fragment that likes to devour this sort of drink at home, despite the fact that they don't have the opportunity or offices. There are as of now mail request organizations that give people and families arranged beers, ales and do it without anyone's help home preparing units. This open door will be investigated and created on a preliminary premise. In the event that fruitful, it could turn into a significant new wellspring of salary without making the requirement for extra staff or creation space. The market for Bok Ale House and Brewery covers an enormous region of various and thickly populated gatherings. In spite of the fact that it will be situated in a sea shore setting, it is a region where individuals travel to eat out and one that is likewise frequented by sightseers. It is additionally a territory known for and taking into account the segment bunch we are focusing on. Microbreweries and brewpubs have a one of a kind presence in that they produce a drink of prevalent quality. This time of legitimate limitations on liquor utilization and the wellbeing cognizant client direct that individuals are hoping to drink less and however drink better . Brew is the most well known mixed drink in America. Americans drink roughly 23 gallons of lager for each year. The objective of our distillery is to produce such a presence. There are more flavor profiles in the group of brew than in that of wine, sweet, dry, harsh, tart, grainy, unpleasant, fruity †it's everything there. This makes brew appealing, yet in addition as an adaptable backup to a wide range of food. We will offer lager on tap (little servings of a few assortments at a fixed value), which makes a happy air just as a discussion piece for our clients The sea shore and footpath territory is one of the most attractive retail stores in Atlantic Beach. The Atlantic Beach Chamber of Commerce rates it as the third best retail advertise in the state. There are in excess of 200 organizations in a 1/4 square mile zone with normal deals of $330 per square foot. The client base will originate from three significant portions:  · Local populace †the city of Atlantic Beach with an all year populace of 123,000 is midway situated on the east shoreline of North Carolina and is inside a 15-minute drive of 8 significant rural areas.  · Colleges and Universities †Atlantic Beach includes a few schools inside a 15-mile range of Atlantic Boulevard and an occasional populace of 90,000.  · Tourism †between inns, inns, bed and breakfast rooms and motels, there are more than 8,500 rooms accessible. A year ago they were at 98% inhabitance.  · Local organizations †The City of Atlantic Beach records more than 100 organizations with a normal of 12 representatives in the Catwalk Pavilion region. As per 1995 industry insights from the Miller Brewing Company, lager utilization increments throughout the mid year months . The food idea and item picture of the Bok Ale House and Brewery will draw in two diverse client profiles:  · The youthful grown-up and youthful grown-up understudy †an ever increasing number of youngsters have created taste for claim to fame mixes.  · Curious and liberal †â€Å"if you attempt it, you will like it.† Through advertising, exposure, and word-

Should You Send Old or New SAT Scores Expert Guide

Should You Send Old or New SAT Scores Expert Guide SAT/ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips In the event that you've taken the old SAT and the overhauled SAT, you might be pondering which scores you ought to send to schools. Would it be a good idea for you to send every one of your scores? Would it be advisable for you to simply send your outcomes from the test with the most elevated normal area scores? In this article, I'll disclose the variables to consider while deciding if you ought to send old or new SAT scores. General Differences Between Old and New SAT Scores The old SAT was out of 2400 and the upgraded one is out of 1600. The new SAT consolidates Reading and Writing into one segment score out of 800. Perusing and Writing were two separate segments on the old SAT, and both were out of 800. Likewise, the paper was a required part of the Writing area on the old SAT. Presently, the exposition is discretionary it's its own area and it doesn't affect your general SAT score. A few schools will require the exposition on the new SAT, so check the necessities of the universities you're applying to. Here's an increasingly exhaustive breakdown of the old SAT versus the enhanced one. Most Schools Accept Both the Old and New SATs For the classes of 2017 and 2018, most by far of schools will acknowledge scores from the old SAT and the upgraded SAT, yet ensure you check the particular strategies for the schools you’re applying to. You need to send the scores that the school will acknowledge, and keeping in mind that most universities will acknowledge scores from either form, some may just acknowledge scores from the new SAT. For instance, Yale will acknowledge scores from the old SAT for the classes of 2017 and 2018, yet will just acknowledge scores from the new SAT for the classes of 2019 and past. Northwestern will acknowledge scores from the old test for the class of 2017, yet it's one of only a handful not many schools that won't acknowledge scores from the old test for the class of 2018. Take a gander at each school’s site to discover its prerequisites. On the off chance that you can’t discover data there, call the confirmations office. A few universities may just acknowledge scores from the new SAT. For what reason Does It Matter Which Scores You Send? In the event that you’ve taken the old SAT and the present SAT, you may feel that you can send scores from the two tests and that universities will simply consider your most elevated area scores or your most elevated by and large score. In reality, however, that may not be valid. Most Schools Don't Superscore Between the Old and New SAT Superscoring is the procedure by which schools consider your most noteworthy area scores over all dates you took the SAT. Indeed, even schools that do superscore are probably not going to do as such between the old test and the present one. On the off chance that you improved on Reading on the old test and better on Math on the enhanced one, schools presumably won't consider both segment scores while assessing your SAT scores. New SAT Scores Are Slightly Inflated Additionally, schools in all probability won’t simply center around the higher by and large score between the two tests since scores on the new test are to some degree expanded. For instance, a 1100 on the new SAT is proportional to a 1020 on the Critical Reading and Math areas of the old SAT. In this manner, in the event that you found the middle value of 550 for every segment on the new SAT and a 520 for every area on the old SAT, you really improved on the old SAT in spite of having a higher score on the enhanced one. What is important to universities isn't your score yet how well you did comparative with other school candidates. What Should You Do? Here are the different choices you have if you’re settling on sending your old scores and new scores. Send Both You’ll need to utilize this choice for schools that expect you to send every one of your scores. In case you're given a decision, sending scores from the old test and the enhanced one might be a decent choice in the event that you improved on Reading or Math on one test versus the other, however your general scores were similar. Regardless of whether the school won’t superscore between the two tests, they’ll be more averse to think you have any ability insufficiencies. For instance, let’s state you got a 650 in Math on the old test and a 500 in Critical Reading. In the event that, on the new test, you got a 620 on Reading and Writing and a 550 on Math, your general scores would be comparative, yet the old test would show a lot more grounded math aptitudes and the new test outcomes would show more grounded understanding perception. Hence, you can send both if your area scores on the various variants of the test show various qualities or limit your shortcomings. Likewise, you might need to send both in the event that you arrived at your objective scores on both the old and the new tests. On the off chance that you got a 2300 on the old test and a 1590 on the new test, don't hesitate to send the two scores. Indicating great scores on two distinct tests might be progressively amazing to universities. Use Concordance Tables and Send the Best Score Recall that the scores on the new SAT aren’t proportionate to those on the old SAT; the scores on the new test are somewhat higher. Along these lines, the SAT has made concordance tables to change over new scores to old scores and the other way around. You can utilize these tables to figure out which score is ideal and afterward send the best score. This alternative presumably bodes well for most of understudies. Send the Old SAT The contention for simply sending your scores from the old SAT is that schools are significantly more acquainted with the old SAT and might have the option to all the more effectively decipher your scores. This could be a decent choice for understudies who did likewise or better on the old SAT. Since scores on the new SAT are somewhat swelled, a proportional score on the old SAT is increasingly great. What's Next? In the event that you've taken the ACT, look at this post for change tables from the ACT to the old and new SAT. In case you're reading for the new SAT, realize why utilizing Khan Academy isn't sufficient. At long last, look at this post to comprehend the significance of the SAT. Baffled with your scores? Need to improve your SAT score by 160 points?We've composed a guide about the main 5 systems you should use to have a taken shots at improving your score. Download it with the expectation of complimentary at this point:

Two Reviews of Angela Davis

Two Reviews of Angela Davis’ Women Race and Class (1983) By: Brittany Turnbull I. The Reviews a. Amy Winter [Women Race and Class] Off Our Backs, January-February Issue (2005) pp48-49 b. Ann Russo [Book Review]Women Studies International Forum, Volume 6, Number 2 (1983) pp249 II. Outline of Reviews a. Winter, Off Our Backs The analyst concentrated on the various pieces of history of the African American lady just as the historical backdrop of all ladies all in all. She separated the audit by talking about every section to agree with Davis’ separate of her book and concentrated on the significant subtleties of every part that she discovered Davis had brought out. Winter doesn’t offer a lot of assessment inside her audit since she basically adheres to the way that the book is expounded on mistreatment of African American ladies and African American individuals and she for the most part portrays precisely what Davis composed. Be that as it may, Winter offered some analysis when Davis had expounded on how ladies functioning in the manufacturing plants and doing hard work was more fascinating than accomplishing house work. Winter found that there was no distinction in light of the fact that whichever way something should have been cleaned. One just received the rewards of a check while the other didn't. This was a decent and intensive survey in light of the fact that in addition to the fact that it looked at the entire book it took a gander at every individual section and the central matters inside every part. b. Russo, Women Studies International Forum There is an alternate way to deal with this audit since it is essentially an investigation of what Davis’ topic or generally speaking significance of the book was. Russo portrayed the book as in the book wasn’t about persecution of Black ladies or Black individuals. It was tied in with contrasting the Black ladies with White ladies the general chauvinist abuse that the two of them needed to survive and still are surviving. Russo portrayed this book as a being a women's activist book about woman's rights in general and the upheaval everything being equal. There was no conversation about the historical backdrop of abuse that Black ladies needed to live with after some time or anything thusly. There was not notice of recorded figures also. This survey was acceptable as in it was an investigation of the general thought of the book, anyway I feel that Russo was totally off-base in her examination. She neglected to understand the specific battles and the specific contrasts among White and Black ladies. She additionally neglected to understand that the utilization of White ladies inside the content was to analyze the amount increasingly troublesome Black ladies had it over White ladies regarding the sexual and racial separation that Black ladies have needed to experience and endeavor to defeat since the beginning.

You can chose from the instruction that I attarched Research Paper

You can browsed the guidance that I attarched - Research Paper Example This exposition examines needle therapy and the manners by which its machines help in the mending procedure of the body, psyche and soul. Needle therapy calms the body’s utilities and animates the characteristic self-mending movement by activating specific anatomic focuses ordinarily known as acupoints or needle therapy focuses. The most commonplace strategy utilized to animate needle therapy focuses is the infusing of fine, cleaned needles into explicit site of the body. Electrical incitement, warmth, or weight may advance more effect of needle therapy. Extra acupoint incitement techniques contain linaments, heat treatment or moxibustion, measuring, manual back rub and the utilization of topical natural meds (Bruno, 2012). Standard Chinese Medicine is fixated on an early way of thinking that alludes to the world and the body, in reference of two differentiating energies: yin and yang. In the event that these energies happen to be in balance, at that point the body is solid. Power, known as qi moves along specific ways, named meridians, everywhere throughout the body. This ceaseless development of power keeps up the yin and yang energies in balance. All things considered, if the development of power gets stuck, the blockage can prompt ailment, absence of capacity, or agony. Needle therapy treatment can cleared â€Å"qi† in the body and excite work, initiating the physical, common reclamation response through various physiological frameworks. Contemporary examinations have demonstrated acupuncture’s sway on the cardiovascular framework, safe frameworks and endocrine, sensory system and stomach related framework. Through animating the body’s various frameworks, needle therapy can help to mend torment, and improve rest and a feeling of solace (Cim.ucsd, 2015). To begin with, the acupuncturist going to will question about the general wellbeing history of the customer. From that point forward, the individual in question will investigate the tongue’s covering, shading, and shape, feel the client’s beat and possibly play out some extra real exams depending on the individual wellbeing prerequisite.

Workshop Trip to Liberia COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Workshop Trip to Liberia COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog The following entry was composed by Nora Gordon, a second year MIA student concentrating in Human Rights.   Nora spent Spring Break, and an additional week in Liberia participating in her SIPA workshop.   She is back now but wrote this while she was away. ________________________________________ I am currently working in Liberia with my workshop team on improving vocational training programs for youth in Liberia.   We are here for two weeks conducting trainings in vocational training centers about market assessment.   Our goal is to help staff and participants learn how to use a market assessment toolkit that was produced by a SIPA workshop team in 2008. Here are a few quick notes from the trip so far . . . *** We went to work on Saturday morning for a quick meeting with our supervisor.   Our project involves making a short film and other training tools for people working on job training programs for youth. We will get to visit 4 Youth Employment Program sites throughout the country. The idea is for us to help local programs figure out market needs and shape their training accordingly.   When we finished our work meeting, a Liberian guy walked into the office singing “In the jungle, the mighty jungle…” We all laughed.   He gave us a giant, gummy smile and told us his name, McNeal.   “I’m the IT guy,” he said.   We told him about our video and he was excited to be on camera.   Then we tried to find out some details about the local culture. “Do people dance a lot in Liberia?   Where do people dance?” “Whaaaaaaat?!!   You ask me this?!!   How you gonna ask me if we daaaaance?!” We laugh. “A typical Liberian will never answer a question,” McNeal explains.   If you ask “I hear in Liberia you don’t answer questions. Is this true?” We will say “Where did you receive this information!?” *** I’m finding some similarities with other places I’ve worked, like Rwanda and oddly even more with East Timor.   Maybe these are just commonalities for conflict/post-conflict zones.   But, for example, there are chips of broken glass cemented along the top of the walls surrounding residences.   There are lots of locks on every door, 24 hour guards, and in our compound there are a bunch of bars on all the windows.   We have 24 hour guards and a curfew.   We’re not supposed to even walk ten feet outside by ourselves after dark (6:30pm). I’m feeling very protected/restricted. *** Today we did our training in the field, which involves introducing a “Market Assessment Toolkit” for vocational trainers and youth.   There was a 14 year old boy named Morris in the class who asked Why is it called a toolkit?” Good question. I’d explained earlier that it was like tools in a toolbox- like a hammer, but for your brain. So one of his teachers explained that metaphor to him, and I thought, This is great, lets put him in our film!   We’re making a film as part of our project in order to help make sense of the toolkit.   As class went on, though I realized the boy was quite cross-eyed, and I thought Ugh, now if I put him on film, it will be so stereotypical, Oh look at this poor little cross-eyed African boy and people will just focus on that instead of what he’s saying.   Or else mean people might laugh. But then I thought, It’s not fair to discriminate and not put him in the video because of a physical condition. So I had this idea to pull him aside later and have him talk to the teacher so he would be looking at the teacher not the camera, and it wouldn’t be so noticeable.   It worked out nicely and is great for our project. ***

Is Mills distinction of higher and lower pleasures justified - Literature Essay Samples

In an attempt to amend the traditional Benthamite hedonic calculus in which simply the quantity of pain or pleasure is considered, Mill, within his Utilitarianism, postulates an additional qualitative distinction resulting in the notion of a higher or a lower pleasure. Scholars have since questioned whether such a distinction is truly justified; as Martin observes: Mills contention has been subjected to a widespread , and withering, philosophical criticism. (Rex Martin (1972). A defense of Mills Qualitative Hedonism. Philosophy, 47, p.140) In this essay, I will seek to sustain the line of argument that, if Mill is to maintain the label of a true hedonist, his distinction between higher and lower pleasures is unjustified. Hedonistic title aside, it appears that the higher/lower pleasure distinction presents numerous other difficulties, both theoretically and practically. Though many might view the distinction as a necessary one, Mills justification of it is not strong enough to avoid further problems for the Utilitarian. Before engaging in evaluation of Mills qualitative hedonism, it is perhaps worth clarifying the distinction between, and reasons for the distinction between, higher and lower pleasures. Mill, amongst others, recognized the limits of Benthams utilitarian approach; Bentham argued that pleasure could be measured solely on quantity famously asserting that, quantity of pleasure being equal, pushpin is as good as poetry. (Bentham, quoted in G E Moore. Principia Ethica ) All pleasures were, by nature, equal in value. Adopting this view could arguably open the Utilitarian up to issues like those presented in the Haydn and the Oyster thought experiment; many would be unwilling to assert that the oyster life would be the more pleasurable, comparatively, than the life of Haydn though this is what Benthams quantitative approach would seem to imply. Martin highlights the key features of the qualitative distinction: firstly, mental pleasures are intrinsically higher in quality than bodily pleasure s. Furthermore, the superiority in quality might be so far outweighing quantity as to render it, in comparison, of small account (Rex Martin (1972). A defense of Mills Qualitative Hedonism. Philosophy, 47, p.140) ; no amount of lower pleasure could outweigh one intrinsically higher. Finally, the decision as to whether a pleasure should be deemed desirable should be that of the preference of experienced judges, (ibid.) someone who has knowledge of both and therefore the authority to assess. It is widely recognized that Mill, in adding a qualitative aspect to pleasures, presents himself with a dilemma. It seems logically impossible for Mill to maintain his hedonistic ideals (evident, as Crisp demonstrates, from his affirming the greatest happiness principle: pleasure and freedom from pain are the only things desirable as ends), and still hold that pleasures differ qualitatively, since if he were to assert that a higher pleasure is higher because of its intrinsically being more pleasurable, he would be admitting that quantity of pleasure is of sole importance. Yet, if pleasantness is not what makes something preferable then he would have to relinquish the notion that pleasure is the only thing desirable as an end (M. Smith and E. Sosa, quoted in: Rex Martin (1972). A defense of Mills Qualitative Hedonism. Philosophy, 47.), thus, his hedonism. Either quality collapses into quantity and Mill has made no advance on Bentham, or Mill can no longer count himself a (full) hedoni st. (Crisp, Roger, Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Mill on Utilitarianism. London, 1997.) Maintaining that a pleasure is intrinsically higher in quality without being higher in quantity implies that there must be an additional factor at play more desirable than pleasure itself. Crisp suggests this quality might be one of a self- realizing (ibid.)nature; this would arguably not present a problem were it not to compromise the notion of pleasure as the highest good. Even if the defense of Mills hedonism was not of concern, the inconsistency between the greatest happiness principle and the higher/lower pleasure distinction still seem to be inconsistent as a matter of the internal logic of Mills argument. However, it is worth noting, as Martin does, that the coherency of the above criticism rests on a specific interpretation of the text itself. It seems that Moore, for example, understood the text under the interpretation that Mill was not attempting to hold with respect to pleasures that the preferred kind is more pleasant than the other. (Rex Martin (1972). A defense of Mills Qualitative Hedonism. Philosophy, 47, p.142) Upon this basis, he could construct the criticism that if a preferable thing is not more pleasant, preference is just a judgement of that intuitional kind good is good and indefinable. (G E Moore. Principia Ethica ) However, the situation is entirely transformed by an alternative textual reading such as that put forward by Martin: if Mill believed that kinds of pleasure do differ in their degree of being pleasant and that the higher or preferred kind is the more pleasant one, then the critics would have no basis for saying that hedonism and Mills qualitative distinct ion are in principle incompatible. (Rex Martin (1972). A defense of Mills Qualitative Hedonism. Philosophy, 47, p.143) It is possible, then, to find consistency within Mills account if read under a certain interpretation; however, an opinion which requires re-interpretation and clarification by its readers is arguably ambiguous and therefore not fully justified in the first place. Mill doesnt justify his qualitative distinction in enough detail to avoid these criticisms and his ideas being justified on his behalf doesnt mean that he, himself, justified them well. In addition, I think the second potential reading put forth by Martin is, in itself, inconsistent with what Mill says; if he was saying that higher pleasures were, in fact more pleasant then Mill perhaps would not need to focus so much attention on the notion that humans would not want to relinquish these higher faculties/pleasures due to a sense of dignity. Aside from inconsistency worries, it seems that the notion of a qualitative distinction encompasses numerous other problems. Firstly, Mill suggests that expert judges who have experienced both higher and lower pleasures are those in a position to ascertain which pleasures are higher and which lower. If one of the two is, by those who are competently acquainted with both, placed so far above the other that they prefer it, even though knowing it to be attended with a greater amount of discontent, and would not resign it for any quantity of the other pleasure which their nature is capable of, we are justified in ascribing to the preferred enjoyment a superiority in quality (Mill, Utilitarianism, chapter 2) However, it seems that even the judgement of these supposed experts would change with context; one might prefer poetry to drinking water, for example, until one is severely dehydrated. Arguably, higher faculties can only be used to produce higher pleasures if the more primitive needs are satisfied. Though Mill does not obviously say that our more animalistic desires, for example, need not be gratified, this needs to be the case before anyone would think of choosing so-called higher pleasures of preference. In addition, Mill stipulates that these judges must have experience of both types of life- essentially, one with the gratification of lower pleasures and then higher pleasures. However, a life evidently consists of the gratification of both; has any person really had experience of one without the other in order to make a judgement as to which is preferable? Most, I think, would agree that they would expect themselves to prefer a life full of higher pleasures but it is not the case necessarily. Crisp certainly voices my own opinion when he questions the dividing line between bodily and mental pleasures which Mill emphasizes. Many do acknowledge that pleasures of the intellect, of the feelings and imagination, and of the moral sentiments, a much higher value as pleasures than to those of mere sensation (ibid.) but at which point does a pleasure become either bodily or mental; couldnt it be both? Crisp expresses the view with an example: it is difficult to find a clear criterion for placing a pleasure on one side of the divide or the other. When you savior the Lagavulin, the pleasure you take in it would seem to be quite different from that your whisky-loving dog takes in it. You can reflect on its origins and the way it is produced, comparing its flavor to other whiskies using a broad vocabulary referring to properties to which your dog is quite insensitive. But your pleasure is a bodily one, and certainly involves certain sensations. (Crisp, Roger, Routledge Philosophy Guid ebook to Mill on Utilitarianism. London, 1997.) This argument seems to apply to rather many experiences we might consider pleasurable; a mental pleasure would not exist without a physical one and so the two are inseparable and, in turn, incomparable. In addition, it seems that a pleasure can only ever be deemed higher or lower within the context of comparison with another i.e. such and such a pleasure is higher or lower than some other. Higher and lower are, by their very nature, relative terms. (ibid.) Moreover, when distinguishing ones preference in terms of pleasures, some form of subjectivity is inevitable and, again, preference is context based with regards to who is judging. A wine taster, for example, tastes wine and discusses it in an intellectual sense; for him, wine tasting is a higher pleasure as it stimulates his intellect. Another person, a pianist, for example, might view wine-tasting as a lower pleasure indulging simply his base desire to be drunk. Both characters ask ed to choose their preference between the two (wine tasting or piano playing) would differ considerably. Any weakness to the preference test arguably weakens the notion of higher and lower since this is supposed to be the way of deciding which category a sensation falls in to. Talk of preference with regard to pleasures also seems to me strangely misplaced; if Utilitarianism focuses on the greatest pleasure/ good for society or for people surrounding you, then what need is there to distinguish between higher and lower pleasures. Are moral decisions not meant to be made on an objective basis? It suffices to say by way of conclusion, that Mills distinction between higher and lower pleasures is, overall, unjustified. It is perhaps fair to say that the idea itself is, in a sense, justifiable as most would agree that a simplistic indulgence of base pleasures should be discouraged. However, it is evident that many find fault with the consistency between the qualitative distinction and Mills own hedonistic values. In addition, the utilitarian is arguably faced with a number of issues when attempting to actually enforce the distinction.